Telling the Story of the Missoula Floods
Developing an Ice Age Floods Animation Through Science, Partnership, and Interpretation Explaining the Missoula Floods has never been simple. The floods reshaped landscapes across much of the Pacific Northwest, yet they occurred thousands of years ago, unfolded repeatedly rather than once, and operated on a scale that is difficult to grasp from any single viewpoint. While physical evidence of flooding is visible in coulees, erratics, and sediment deposits across the region, understanding how those features formed requires connecting processes that span vast distances and long periods of time. For the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail, this challenge sits at the center of its mission. The Trail links flood-related sites across four states and relies on partnerships with parks, museums, educational institutions, Tribes, and communities to interpret a story that is regional in scale and national in significance. Developing a shared, accurate way to tell that story has been a long-standing goal. One important step toward that goal is the release of a new Ice Age Floods animation, now publicly available through the Pleistocene Post for the first time ever through the National Park Service and the Ice Age Floods Institute. Understanding the Missoula Floods—and Why Animation Was Essential The Missoula Floods were not a single catastrophic event. They occurred dozens of times as an ice dam repeatedly formed and failed during the last ice age. Each flood released immense volumes of water, carving the Channeled Scablands, transporting massive boulders, and depositing thick layers of sediment across the Columbia Basin, the Willamette Valley, and beyond. These repeated events reshaped landscapes on a scale that is difficult to grasp from any single location or landform. This combination of repetition, scale, and process presents a fundamental interpretive challenge. Static maps, photographs, or diagrams can show where flooding occurred, but they struggle to convey where ice dams formed and failed, why floods happened repeatedly, and how those repeated events shaped the landforms we see today. Visitors often encounter individual features—such as coulees, erratics, or sediment deposits—without an intuitive sense of how those features connect to a larger, system-wide story. Animation offers a way to bridge that gap by showing movement, change, and sequence over time. It makes it possible to illustrate how ice dams failed, how floodwaters moved across vast landscapes, and how erosion, transport, and deposition shaped the region over thousands of years. By showing sequence and scale together, the animation provides context that static interpretation often cannot. At the same time, animation carries risks. Visual storytelling can unintentionally oversimplify complex processes or imply certainty where scientific understanding includes ranges and ongoing inquiry. Addressing those risks required careful collaboration and review to ensure the final product communicates current scientific understanding clearly, accurately, and responsibly. A Trail Built on Partnership The Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail is a partnership-based unit of the National Park Service. Unlike traditional national parks, the Trail does not center on a single land base. Instead, it connects a network of sites, organizations, and communities that collectively interpret the Missoula Floods story across four states. From its earliest days, scientific research and public education about the floods have been advanced by regional partners, particularly the Ice Age Floods Institute, along with academic researchers, museums, educators, and land managers. Federal agencies with expertise in geology, hydrology, and landscape science have also contributed to the evolving understanding of flood processes and landforms. Together, these partners built the scientific foundation and public awareness that ultimately made the Trail possible. That shared foundation shaped how the Ice Age Floods animation was conceived. The project was not approached as a standalone National Park Service product, but as a collaborative effort intended to reflect current scientific understanding while respecting decades of research, publication, and public engagement. Partner involvement helped ensure the animation was grounded in credible science and responsive to the needs of educators, interpreters, and institutions working across the region. Just as important, partners helped shape how the animation would be used. From the outset, it was understood that no single product could replace place-based interpretation. Instead, the animation needed to complement local stories, support diverse interpretive goals, and function as a shared framework rather than a prescriptive narrative. The result is an animation designed to be flexible, modular, and broadly applicable. A Collaborative Development Process Developing the animation was an iterative process involving scientists, interpreters, educators, and media specialists. Expertise in glacial dynamics, flood hydraulics, geomorphology, and interpretation informed each stage of development, ensuring that both scientific rigor and interpretive clarity remained central throughout the project. Drafts were reviewed not only for technical accuracy, but for how audiences might reasonably interpret what they were seeing. Revisions focused on clarity and defensibility—refining pacing so that scale was conveyed without exaggerating velocity, ensuring viewers could distinguish between process and outcome, and reinforcing that the floods occurred repeatedly rather than as a single event. In many cases, refinements were not about correcting facts, but about improving how those facts were communicated visually. The goal was not to resolve every scientific nuance, but to present a version of the story that is accurate, carefully framed, and useful across many interpretive settings. This collaborative approach helped ensure the animation could serve as a reliable interpretive tool while remaining accessible to broad public audiences. What the Animation Is—and Is Not The Ice Age Floods animation is intended to provide a system-scale overview of how the floods worked, support education and interpretation across diverse settings, and serve as a shared visual reference for partners and educators. It is not intended to replace place-based interpretation, resolve all scientific debates, or function as a comprehensive instructional resource on its own. In many cases, individual segments of the animation may be more useful than the full piece. Short sections can illustrate specific topics—such as basalt erosion, flow through constricted valleys, or the cumulative effects of repeated flooding—while local interpreters focus on the features and stories most relevant to their sites. Supporting Education and Public Understanding Now that the animation is publicly available, it
IAFI Store – Winter Inventory Reduction Sale
The IAFI Store is having a special Winter Inventory Reduction Sale to make room available to add new items and updated items as they become available. This is a great opportunity to get Floods-related presents for family, friends, and maybe yourself at (often) steeply reduced prices. And every order will include a free IAFI window decal you can use to let others know you’re passionate about the features and the science behind the cataclysmic Ice Age Floods story. Share the Ice Age Floods story this Christmas! The IAFI Store’s Winter Inventory Reduction Sale is here – and it’s your chance to dive deep and share the story of these spectacular events. We’re making room for exciting new items, which means steep discounts of 10% to over 40% on a selection of Ice Age Floods merchandise. Whether you’re shopping for the Floods enthusiast in your life, a curious student, or treating yourself to something extraordinary, now’s the perfect time to explore the fascinating world of the cataclysmic floods that carved the Pacific Northwest. What Makes This Sale Special? From educational materials that bring ancient catastrophes to life, to unique gifts that celebrate the power of water and ice, our collection offers something for every curious mind. These aren’t just presents – they’re gateways to understanding the massive forces that shaped our landscape thousands of years ago. As an added gift for you, every order comes with a free IAFI window decal – your badge of honor showing you’re passionate about the incredible science behind the Ice Age Floods story. It’s more than just merchandise; it’s a conversation starter about one of the world’s most dramatic chapters. Limited time only. Shop now while inventory lasts and discover why the Ice Age Floods continue to captivate scientists and nature lovers alike. Ready to explore? Visit the IAFI Store today and turn this Christmas into a journey through deep time.
The Pulse of Rocks
“All creatures, objects, places, and elements have a spirit.” Patrick Saltonstall, Sugpiag (Aleut) Are rocks alive? Hmm. You might be visualizing a small stone or large boulder just sitting there…doing nothing. If life has to originate from a cell, then a no vote seems reasonable. Let’s give the Mineral Kingdom a few minutes to speak on behalf of its constituents: “Our rocky friends react to temperature, expand and contract; they can absorb moisture, and they can transform their makeup entirely, like petrified wood changing into stone. Taxonomy – In the 19th . century, rocks and minerals were first classified based on their chemical make-up. As with animals and plants, new members are added yearly to the mineral kingdom’s nearly 10,000 species. Movement – Rocks sure move around, from riding glacier waves, to being catapulted for miles out of fiery volcanoes to being gently tumbled downstream by…streams, and through time, broken down into sandy beaches. Or, if you’re pumice, you can simply float downstream at your leisure. Any pebble has placed many travel stickers on its luggage finding itself in many lands during its long life. Stalagmites and stalactites check off another life form requisite by respectively growing up and down in caves with the help of slowly dripping water. Rock serves us well in concrete, road building materials, sculptures, and stone homes, all making us Salt of the Earth. Reproduction and Growth – Kidney stones are minerals and salts formed in urine. They form and grow in the bladder and kidneys. The imbalance of too many minerals in the urine and not enough liquid causes the minerals to reproduce and grow. Cooperation – Practically all living things rise out of soil, which is a mixture of organic and inorganic magic. Plants need both. Animals need minerals too. Salty seas cover a major chunk of our planet providing a swimming pool habitat to countless known and still to be known species Awe Inspiring – Rocks are the basis for our most beloved national, natural treasures, from the timeless Grand Canyon, to Yosemite’s granite walls, towering Mt. Rainier, the sandstone Arches, and the Grand Tetons, among many others. We are moved to witness sunrise and sunset light beaming red, and filtered white on mountain peaks. We climb boulders; we summit mighty bare rock and snow-covered mountains for the view, for the peace, perhaps for the love, too. The Fine Line – Everything that is living on our precious planet originated with and within the rocky world, making it a challenge to separate the line between non-life and existence. We are made of stars. We are made of star spirit. A wildlife biologist/naturalist reflects on lithologic ‘life’, Bill Weiler, January 2026
K-12 Ice Age Floods Curriculum: Floods in the Classroom
Thousands of K-12 students across the Pacific Northwest are becoming Ice Age Floods detectives—investigating ancient catastrophic flooding, conducting hands-on experiments, and sharing geological discoveries with their communities. Some may be inspired to become scientists who will ask new questions and conduct research that will advance our understanding of these ancient megafloods. This transformation is happening through Ice Age Floods Detectives, a new grade school science curriculum funded by the Ice Age Floods Institute (IAFI) and developed through partnership with the Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail (NPS), and Engaging Every Student. The Ice Age Floods Detectives program is comprised of four phenomena-based ~1-hour lessons, targeted to grade 4 but adaptable for grades 3–8, to be taught in order over a week or more. Lesson 1: Modeling Ice Age Floods Erosion. Students create watershed models to visualize how water flows and reshapes the landscape. Lesson 2: Investigating Deposition. Students observe how different rocks and landforms are created by deposition, connecting these small-scale experiments to the massive scale of the Ice Age Floods. Lesson 3: Creating Kinesthetic Classroom Models. Students use physical movement and simple materials to model incredible scale of Ice Age flooding, weathering and erosion. Lesson 4: Exploring the Erosion Energy of Moving Water. Students experiment with water speed and volume to understand its erosive forces and to practice designing scientific experiments. Students will explore the scientific processes geologists use to make discoveries, and how the fascinating area of science—like most other disciplines—is dynamic and constantly changing. The lessons help students explore phenomena and investigate how they relate to observable geologic features. Students are gradually introduced to concepts, processes, and theories that will assist them in forming and revising their own explanations and hypotheses about the Ice Age Floods. These adaptable lessons help train students to be good scientists and critical thinkers, with a unifying theme of exploration and investigation. When the lesson plans are delivered in sequence, a storyline develops, using the creation of our NW landforms as a compelling framework to help cover core concepts and improve student skills. Numerous studies have identified the need for improved STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics) education that connects to students’ lives and communities. Research indicates that grades 4-6 are particularly critical for engaging students and encouraging them to pursue STEAM fields. Those grades are a particular focus of the program, which will help us address the critical need for more scientists and engineers. The curriculum complies with Next Generation Science Standards + Common Core State Standards, and should not compete with other curricular goals for classroom time. This program updates and complements the earlier NPS Investigating Ice Age Floods K-12 curriculum. We’re bringing this curriculum to educators throughout Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana through regional workshops. Ice Age Floods Institute has also established an IAFI K-12 Education Grant Program to help educators offset attendance costs and classroom implementation expenses. You can also help support the program and play a significant part in inspiring the next generation of scientists: Donate fee-free through our Zeffy Fundraiser or IAFI Gorge Chapter’s PayPal Giving Fund Share information and leads about potential funding sources— contact us at IAFIGrants@gmail.com Share this flyer with educators in your community to help spread the word
Malaga Landslide: Ice Age Catastrophe Along the Columbia River
The east bank of the Columbia River near Malaga, Washington, is home to one of the largest and most visually striking landslides in the Pacific Northwest: the Malaga Slide. Covering an estimated 45 square miles, this massive slope failure poured weakened basalt and sediment into the Columbia River valley at the close of the last Ice Age. Today, it remains easily visible from State Route 28, making it an accessible outdoor classroom for geology enthusiasts and tour participants. The geologic story of the Malaga Slide is a tale of both slow preparation and sudden catastrophe. Layers of basalt from the Columbia River Basalt Group were fractured and weathered over millions of years. Interspersed with weaker sedimentary layers, these formations became prone to failure. Add in groundwater saturation, the erosive power of repeated Ice Age Floods, and over-steepened valley walls, and the stage was set for a massive collapse. Scientists believe the main phase of the Malaga Slide occurred approximately 15,000–13,000 years ago, during the final stages of the Missoula Floods. While the collapse itself was sudden, the landslide likely continued to adjust and move over time, creating the hummocky terrain and displaced boulders still visible today. One of the most intriguing aspects of the Malaga Slide is its interaction with the Columbia River. Some geologists have hypothesized that the massive slide may have temporarily blocked or partially dammed the river. This could have caused short-term ponding upstream, potentially extending back toward Peshastin. Evidence of this interaction remains visible today as enormous boulders and slide debris in the river channel. Travelers heading south from Wenatchee on State Route 28 are treated to a dramatic view of the slide, with scarred slopes and scattered boulders lining the west side of the river. This visibility makes the Malaga Slide an outstanding site for guided geology tours offered by the Wenatchee Valley Erratics Chapter of the Ice Age Floods Institute. Participants learn about Ice Age Flood processes, landslide mechanics, and the long-term evolution of the Columbia River valley. Learn more about Wenatchee-area geology tours: https://wverratics.org or contact@wverratics.org Article by Jeff Becklund, Wenatchee Valley Erratics Chapter President
The Bowl & Pitcher at Riverside State Park
The Bowl and Pitcher is a rock formation along the Spokane River and one of the most scenic sites in the area, with basalt cliffs rising 500 feet above the river and large blocks of basalt in the river causing large rapids. The “Bowl” is a circular depression in the river and the “Pitcher” is a large detached block of highly fractured basalt. The geology of Spokane’s Bowl and Picher features dramatic basalt cliffs carved out of the flows from the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG), which reached this area 16 million years ago. There are river and flood deposits of sand and gravel, with granitic boulders forming terraces on the east side of the river, and huge blocks of basalt, causing the Dragon Tooth rapids, downriver from the Bowl and Pitcher. How did those rocks get there? The Spokane and Columbia rivers occupy a long, mostly bedrock canyon near the northeastern boundary of the Columbia Plateau. Glacial Lake Columbia, which formed behind the Okanogan ice lobe, occupied all of the Spokane River and a portion of the Columbia drainage basin during the last Ice Age. Then the glacial Lake Missoula outburst floods first surged over the Columbia Basin beginning around 17,000 years ago, ripping away the CRBG and other bedrock from Bayview, Idaho, to the Pacific Ocean. These floods also deposited a thick sequence of flood gravel in the valley. As Lake Columbia water level dropped, the Spokane River began to remove the sand and gravel fill. Subsequent floods continued to remove the flood deposits, leaving the basalt benches on the west side of the river and the terraces on the east side. Riverside State Park is located northwest of Spokane and consists of over 9000 acres along the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers. The park is the second largest state park and has many recreational activities including, camping, hiking, mountain biking, horseback riding and boating (Discover Pass required). There are two view points for the Bowl and Pitcher. The first is from a small parking lot off the entrance road from Aubry White Parkway that provides an elevated view of the site. The main parking area is down along the river with a picnic area and a network of trails. From the parking lot you can follow the wheelchair accessible path across the suspension bridge over the Spokane River. From the bridge you can enjoy a view of the features that give the site its name. The original bridge was built in 1942 by the Civilian Conservation Corps. The existing bridge, based on the same plans, opened in 1998. On the west side of the river, you can access a network of trails along the river or climb up along the bluffs above the river.
Why Are Basalt Columns Mostly Hexagonal “Bestagons”
The Giant’s Causeway is a rock formation that is so otherworldly that it seems like it was made by supernatural beings. But these incredible hexagonal columns of rock aren’t the result of giant masons. They formed through a quirk of volcanic activity that shows that hexagons really are the bestagons! Cooling lava naturally creates hexagonal cracks to evenly relieve stress When lava cools and turns into rock, it contracts and builds up tension, particularly when held in place by the surrounding landscape. Just as drying mud cracks, initial cracks in the rock are random, but quickly organize into a hexagonal pattern, which scientists consider the most space-efficient shape. Note: the presentation talks about lava cooling from the top down, but it also cools upward from the bottom where it flowed onto a cooler land surface. In our area we typically see columns underlying a more chaotically fractured “entablature”. It is generally thought that because the entablature section is exposed to the air and precipitation, that results in rapid cooling that produces chaotic fracturing. The columnar section which is cooling upward from the base, would experience a much slower and more even rate of cooling, allowing it to better organize into an optimal, space-efficient “bestagonal” shape. Found via SciShow, hosted by: Niba @NotesbyNiba
Missoula Chapter Field Trip TV News Coverage
Missoula chapter field trip – tv news coverage Recently the Montana Natural History Center identified a group of people new to the floods that wanted to do “something” outdoors, but not too early, or too long, or too strenuous, or too late. So IAFI’s Glacial Lake Missoula Chapter worked with the Center to put together a 4 hour, middle of the day field trip. We saved money by using the History Center short bus and our History Center liaison as our driver. Bring your own lunch and water, dress for short hikes and variable weather. The short bus limited us to twelve plus a speaker. We went for $60 per person, $40 for IAFI members, students and Natural History Center members. The trip sold out instantly as soon as we started to publicize. Chapter president Jim Shelden said, “I was surprised that much of the interest was from members that had done 1 or more trips before. The rest was from other newbies. Clearly we want to do more of this.” On trip day a reporter from the local KPAX-TV news popped in and wanted to come along, but he had to follow the bus because we were out of room. A member of The History Center board of directors also wanted to come along, so since we had no seat for him and he wanted to talk more with the reporter, he rode with the reporter. The reporter also needed to be back in town by one PM to edit and get the video ready, so we ran the trip in reverse order to get the summation speech in for our new guests to make the deadline. Then we proceeded to the other sites to show the other participants all the evidence. The day was beautiful with lunch by the river and the reviews were very good. The station got good feedback, the board member was pleased talking to the participants, and we will make the station aware of all our events in the future.
There IS such a thing as ‘settled science’
How bad-faith arguments sow doubt by weaponizing scientific humility Good advice to consider when either claiming or questioning scientific (and geologic) theories and hypotheses “Science is never settled” has become a go-to slogan for populists seeking to legitimize fringe scientific positions. In 2020, Representative Nancy Mace was asked whether she agreed that climate change is the result of humanmade greenhouse emissions. She responded: “My opponent has said that the science is settled on this. Well, the science is never settled. Scientists will tell you that.” In February, Senator Roger Marshall argued more money should be spent on investigating widely debunked links between autism and vaccines, saying “I’m a physician. Science is never settled. That’s what makes us scientists.” When U.K. Reform party leader Nigel Farage was pressed on whether he would “side with medical experts who say ‘a link between Tylenol use in pregnancy and autism’ is dangerous nonsense,” he responded, “When it comes to science, I don’t side with anybody… because science is never settled.” The issue is, of course, that in many areas, from the theory of evolution to the theory of gravity, science is very much settled. To pretend otherwise is to misrepresent the position of the scientific community. That doesn’t mean that scientific positions are eternally fixed and can’t be updated in light of new evidence. It means that our current best explanations have been tested enough for us to be confident that they are good descriptions of the way things work. Myth of overturned consensus A favorite trope of climate denialists is that scientists in the 1970s predicted “global cooling” — an imminent ice age. It’s a smart argument, because if you can suggest that the exact opposite of global warming was once the prevailing view, surely you throw the current consensus on climate science into doubt? Despite media attention and much discussion of the idea, global cooling was never a consensus scientific position. Reviews of the literature at the time show that even 50 years ago, global warming dominated scientific thinking about the Earth’s short-term climate future. That climate change is the result of greenhouse gas emissions is now very much the consensus scientific position. There are, however, examples in science where consensus positions have been modified or updated. Gravity is a classic case. Galileo established that acceleration due to gravity is the same for all objects near Earth’s surface. But it wasn’t until Newton that we had a universal theory of gravitation. Newton’s theory unified the behavior of objects falling on earth with the motions of planets. For years, every measurement seemed to confirm it, and the theory became known as a “law” that nature was thought to obey without exception. But as experiments expanded and instruments improved, the edges of Newton’s “law” began to fray. When dealing with strong gravitational fields like those near a black hole, or when calculating to high precision or over short astronomical distances, Newton’s law wasn’t sufficient. In the 20th century, Einstein’s general relativity filled many gaps — resolving a range of seeming astronomical anomalies and describing how light bends near a black hole. Yet even the relativistic interpretation of gravity is not perfect. We know, for example, that it must break down inside a black hole. First Galileo’s and then Newton’s theories were superseded, and we know Einstein’s isn’t correct in every situation. Does that mean these earlier theories are useless and not examples of settled science? Definitely not. In contexts where these theories have been rigorously tested and shown to give the correct answers (to a given degree of precision), they remain valid. They aren’t wrong — just special cases of the more general theories, valid within a given domain of legitimacy in which they were originally postulated and tested. In the same way, whatever supersedes Einstein’s theory will have to include it as a special case. The example of gravity shows that scientific knowledge can evolve yet still be considered settled within its domain of legitimacy. We can point to other consensuses, like evolution or germ theory, as settled science that has been expanded and generalized over time. Scientific ‘facts’ There are also questions that most would call definitively settled. That Earth is round, not flat, is perhaps the most obvious. But whether we choose to call this a “fact” or not depends on how we define the word. If we demand 100% certainty, science can’t provide it. If you want certainty, you need to look to mathematics, where knowledge is built through deduction from axioms (a fundamental set of premises), independent of the world. Science, in contrast, built on evidence and induction, can only ever offer increasing confidence. A key premise of the scientific method is openness to new evidence. If you consider yourself 100% certain, then no new evidence, however convincing, can change your mind. That is not good science. However, if you accept that science provides evidence for hypotheses, it can offer what we might call indisputable evidence — so robust that disputing it isn’t a tenable position. Overturning the not-flat worldview would require such a massive reconsideration of what we understand about reality as to make it practically impossible. So, “settled science” does not mean we know something with absolute certainty, but that the weight of evidence is heavily in favor of this interpretation. Perhaps more importantly, if someone wants to change the currently held conception, the burden of proof is on them. All scientific knowledge comes with uncertainty. That is the hallmark of good science. But uncertainty doesn’t mean we cannot confidently assert that entropy always increases (the second law of thermodynamics) or that Earth orbits the sun. Science embraces uncertainty and is open to revision when new information appears, but that does not mean we shouldn’t take a position when the evidence stacks up on one side of the balance. Issues that have been rigorously tested can still be considered settled. Not being 100% certain isn’t the same as being 50-50. Admitting doubt isn’t the same as both-siding a one-sided issue. The fact that scientists acknowledge uncertainty isn’t a reason for championing false balance. But these are the fallacious positions populists are taking when
Kititas Valley Historical Museum – Ellensburg
IN THE CITY OF ELLENSBURG… when you want to spend some time indoors, a great place to visit is the KITTITAS VALLEY HISTORICAL MUSEUM. It has about 30,000 items from which more than 50 exhibits and displays are chosen. The mission of the museum is to, “Collect, Preserve and Share the History, Heritage, and Culture of Kittitas County.” In experiencing it you feel a strong connection to the Pacific Northwest. Collection highlights include: Indigenous cultural items (especially from the K’tɨ́taas and Pshwánapam bands). Note the roots here for the local names of Kittitas and Wanapum. Geological specimens, including Ellensburg Blue Agate Some fossilized animals Household goods, textiles, and furnishings Military memorabilia and service records Historic photographs and albums Agricultural tools and equipment Business records and local commerce material Even the building itself is interesting. Built of brick, it was constructed after the Great Ellensburg Fire of July 4, 1889. (There is an exhibit about that fire and its devastation to the town). Some examples of what you will see: So, if you are so inclined, spend some time and enjoy. The museum is open Monday through Saturday from 10am to 4pm. The address is 114 E. 3rd Ave. Ellensburg Admission is free and donations are accepted. Article by Mike Doran: President of the Ellensburg Chapter of the Ice Age Floods Institute